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Unitary executive theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Administrative law of the United States

The unitary executive theory is a legal theory in United States constitutional law which holds that the president of the United States possesses the power to control the entire federal executive branch. The doctrine is rooted in Article Two of the United States Constitution, which vests "the executive Power" of the United States in the president.

The status quo is that the President of the United States does exercise significant authority over the executive branch, but that there are some exceptions. For example, there are independent agencies such as the Federal Reserve, and independent personnel such as special counsels.[1][2] These limits on unitary executive power can be created by the legislative branch via Congress passing legislation, or by the judicial branch via Supreme Court decisions and interpretation of the law. Exceptions to unitary executive power in the United States have existed since the founding of the country, for example the at-the-time independent positions of Comptroller and Postmaster General, the independent Sinking Fund Commission, and parts of the United States Constitution that limit executive power such as the Opinions Clause and the Necessary and Proper Clause.[1][2]

There is disagreement about the strength and scope of the doctrine.[2] In 2008, Steven Calabresi and Christopher Yoo described the unitary executive theory as ensuring "the federal government will execute the law in a consistent manner and in accordance with the president’s wishes." This stands in contrast to other scholarly literature, such as MacKenzie in 2008 and Crouch, Rozell, and Sollenberger in 2020, that stresses the fact that federal employees have to faithfully execute the laws enacted according to the process prescribed in the U.S. Constitution.

Theory
The Vesting Clause of Article II provides, "The executive Power [of the United States] shall be vested in a President of the United States of America." Proponents of the unitary executive theory argue that this language, along with the Take Care Clause ("The President shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ..."), creates a "hierarchical, unified executive department under the direct control of the President."[3]

The general principle that the president controls the entire executive branch was originally rather innocuous because it was understood that the president would execute the law. However, extreme forms of the theory have developed in which the president’s wishes exceed the law. Former White House Counsel John Dean explains: "In its most extreme form, unitary executive theory can mean that neither Congress nor the federal courts can tell the President what to do or how to do it, particularly regarding national security matters."[4]

According to law professors Lawrence Lessig and Cass Sunstein, "No one denies that in some sense the framers created a unitary executive; the question is in what sense. Let us distinguish between a strong and a weak version."[2] In either its strong or weak form, the theory would limit the power of Congress to divest the president of control of the executive branch. The "strongly unitary" theory posits stricter limits on Congress than the "weakly unitary" theory.[2] During his confirmation hearing to become an associate justice on the United States Supreme Court, Samuel Alito seemed to endorse a weaker version of the unitary executive theory.[5]

Some scholars oppose even the "weakly unitary" theory for one of two reasons. Some favor a plural executive, and others favor a view in which Congress and the president share control over the bureaucracy (see references below). Those that favor creating a plural executive, as in the many state governments that separately elect an attorney general.[6] However, those scholars acknowledge that a constitutional amendment would be required to eliminate the federal unitary executive. However, when discussing amending the constitution the phrase unitary executive is being used differently than it is when discussing the unitary executive theory. When discussing unitary executive vs plural executive, the phrase simply defined how many members of the executive branch are elected to office.[needs copy edit]

The unitary executive theory is conceptually a different concept in two ways. First, it applies to the US president, not US governors (state-level executives). Second, unitary executive theory is about the president having control (not influence) over the federal bureaucracy. Other scholars such as David Rosenblom (2001) and Francis Rourke (1993) in their John Gaus lectures argued that Congress and the president share influence over the bureaucracy.[needs copy edit]

Proponents of a strongly unitary theory argue that the president possesses all of the executive power and can therefore control subordinate officers and agencies of the executive branch. This implies that the power of Congress to remove executive agencies or officers from presidential control is limited. Thus, under the strongly unitary executive theory, independent agencies and counsels are unconstitutional to the extent that they exercise discretionary executive power not controlled by the president.[3] However, such agencies do exist and have for at least a century. The existence of such agencies has been upheld by the courts (see Humphries Executor for an example).[needs copy edit]

The judicial branch implications are that a part of the executive branch cannot sue another part because "the executive cannot sue himself." If the federal courts were to adjudicate disputes between executive agencies, it would violate the doctrine of separation of powers.[7]

Adoption of constitutional provisions
The phrase "unitary executive" was discussed as early as the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, referring mainly to having a single individual fill the office of president, as proposed in the Virginia Plan. The alternative was to have several executives or an executive council, as proposed in the New Jersey Plan and as promoted by Elbridge Gerry, Edmund Randolph, and George Mason.[8][9]

At the Pennsylvania ratifying convention in 1787, James Wilson emphasized the advantages of a single chief executive, including greater accountability, vigor, decisiveness, and responsibility:

[T]he executive authority is one. By this means we obtain very important advantages. We may discover from history, from reason, and from experience, the security which this furnishes. The executive power is better to be trusted when it has no screen. Sir, we have a responsibility in the person of our President; he cannot act improperly, and hide either his negligence or inattention; he cannot roll upon any other person the weight of his criminality; no appointment can take place without his nomination; and he is responsible for every nomination he makes. We secure vigor. We well know what numerous executives are. We know there is neither vigor, decision, nor responsibility, in them. Add to all this, that officer is placed high, and is possessed of power far from being contemptible; yet not a single privilege is annexed to his character; far from being above the laws, he is amenable to them in his private character as a citizen, and in his public character by impeachment.[10]

In 1788, the pseudonymous letters of the Federal Farmer defended the proposed unitary executive, arguing that "a single man seems to be peculiarly well circumstanced to superintend the execution of laws with discernment and decision, with promptitude and uniformity."[11]

Meanwhile, Federalists such as James Madison were emphasizing an additional advantage of a unitary executive. In Federalist No. 51, he wrote that an undivided executive would strengthen the ability of the executive to resist encroachments by the legislature: "As the weight of the legislative authority requires that it should be thus divided [into branches], the weakness of the executive may require, on the other hand, that it should be fortified."[12]

Alexander Hamilton later pointed out that the Constitution grants executive power and legislative power in different ways, with the legislative powers of Congress being expressly limited to what is "herein granted," unlike executive powers which are not expressly limited by an enumeration. Hamilton wrote:

In the article which gives the legislative powers of the government, the expressions are "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of the United States." In that which grants the executive power, the expressions are "The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States." The enumeration ought therefore to be considered, as intended merely to specify the principal articles implied in the definition of executive power. ...[13]

In other words, the principle of expressio unius may be more applicable as a limitation upon congressional power than upon executive power. According to Hamilton, the unenumerated executive powers that are vested solely in the president "flow from the general grant of that power, interpreted in conformity with other parts of the Constitution, and with the principles of free government."[13]

Those other parts of the Constitution include the extensive powers granted to Congress. Article I of the Constitution gives Congress the exclusive power to make laws, which the president then must execute, provided that those laws are constitutional. Article I, Section 8, clause 18 of the Constitution known as the Necessary and Proper Clause grants Congress the power to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution all Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". The Constitution also grants Congress power "To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces." Any legitimate theory of the unitary executive must allow Congress to wield its constitutional powers while ensuring that the president can do the same.

Judicial decisions
In the 1926 case of Myers v. United States, the United States Supreme Court decided that the president has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body. The court also wrote:

The ordinary duties of officers prescribed by statute come under the general administrative control of the President by virtue of the general grant to him of the executive power, and he may properly supervise and guide their construction of the statutes under which they act in order to secure that unitary and uniform execution of the laws which article 2 of the Constitution evidently contemplated in vesting general executive power in the President alone.[14]

Subsequent cases such as Humphrey's Executor v. United States (presidential removal of certain kinds of officers), United States v. Nixon (executive privilege), and Bowsher v. Synar (control of executive functions) have flexed the doctrine's reach back and forth. Justice Scalia in his solitary dissent in Morrison v. Olson argued for an unlimited presidential removal power of all persons exercising executive branch powers, which he argued included the independent counsel; the court disagreed, but later moved closer to Scalia's position in Edmond v. United States.[15]

Criticism of the strong version of the theory
Loyola Law School professors Karl Manheim and Allan Ides write that "the separation among the branches is not and never was intended to be airtight," and they point to the president's veto power as an example of the executive exercising legislative power. They also cite other examples of quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial power being exercised by the executive branch, as necessary elements of the administrative state, but they contend that ultimately all administrative power belongs to Congress rather than the President, and the only true "executive" powers are those explicitly described in the Constitution.[16] In this understanding, Manheim and Ides follow in the footsteps of Lessig and Sunstein.[2]

David J. Barron (now a federal judge) and Marty Lederman have also criticized the strong version of the unitary executive theory. They acknowledge that there is a compelling case for a unitary executive within the armed forces.[17] However, they argue that the Constitution does not provide for an equally strong unitary executive outside the military context, and they argue that the Commander in Chief Clause would be superfluous if the same kind of unitary presidential authority resulted from the general constitutional provision vesting executive power in the president.[18]

Unlike the modern constitutions of many other countries, which specify when and how a state of emergency may be declared and which rights may be suspended, the U.S. Constitution itself includes no comprehensive separate regime for emergencies. Some legal scholars believe however that the Constitution gives the president inherent emergency powers by making him commander in chief of the armed forces, or by vesting in him a broad, undefined "executive power."[19] Congress has delegated at least 136 distinct statutory emergency powers to the president, each available upon the declaration of an emergency. Only 13 of these require a declaration from Congress; the remaining 123 are assumed by an executive declaration with no further congressional input.[20] Congressionally authorized emergency presidential powers are sweeping and dramatic and range from seizing control of the internet to declaring martial law.[19] This led the American magazine The Atlantic to observe that "the misuse of emergency powers is a standard gambit among leaders attempting to consolidate power",[19] because, in the words of Justice Robert H. Jackson's dissent in Korematsu v. United States, the 1944 Supreme Court decision that upheld the internment of Japanese-Americans, each emergency power "lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need."[19]

Contrary to claims of some authors,[21] the first administration to make explicit reference to the "unitary executive" was not that of President George W. Bush. For example, in 1987, Ronald Reagan issued a signing statement that declared: "If this provision were interpreted otherwise, so as to require the President to follow the orders of a subordinate, it would plainly constitute an unconstitutional infringement of the President's authority as head of a unitary executive branch."[22]

The George W. Bush administration made the unitary executive theory a common feature of signing statements.[23] For example, Bush once wrote in a signing statement that he would, "construe Title X in Division A of the Act, relating to detainees, in a manner consistent with the constitutional authority of the President to supervise the unitary executive branch and as Commander in Chief and consistent with the constitutional limitations on the judicial power."[24] Critics acknowledge that part of the president's duty is to "interpret what is, and is not constitutional, at least when overseeing the actions of executive agencies," but critics accused Bush of overstepping that duty by his perceived willingness to overrule US courts.[25]

In the states
Plural executives exist in several states where, in contrast to the federal government, executive officers such as lieutenant governor, attorney general, comptroller, secretary of state, and others, are elected independently of the state's governor. The executive branch of the Texan state government is an example of this type of executive structure.

The State of North Carolina maintains a plural executive whereby the chief executive's actions can be curbed by other elected executive officers. The group of North Carolina executive officers is known as the North Carolina Council of State and it wields fair amounts of statutory powers when approving monetary and property transactions by the state government.[26] This type of plural executive, used in Japan, Israel, Italy and Sweden is one in which a collegial body composes the executive branch – however, that collegial body does not comprise multiple members elected in elections, but is rather more akin to the US Cabinet or UK Cabinet in formation and structure.

In film
In the 2018 biographical film Vice, directed by Adam McKay, the unitary executive theory is explored in some detail and dramatized. Vice President Dick Cheney, the film's subject, his lawyer David Addington, deputy assistant attorney general in the Office of Legal Counsel John Yoo, and associate justice Antonin Scalia figure prominently in the theory's development and promotion. They brought it to the foreground of modern discussions on the topic of executive power beginning in 2001, continuing throughout the Bush administration and beyond. The application of this legal doctrine has implications for the prosecution of the War on Terror, the subsequent 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the use of enhanced interrogation techniques at sites such as Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib, and mass surveillance. These are highlighted in the narrative.[citation needed]

See also
Autocracy
Big Stick Policy
Bush Doctrine
Executive branch
Federal Reserve Board
F;hrerprinzip
Global policeman
Imperial presidency
The Imperial Presidency (book)
Independent agencies of the United States government
Independent State Legislature Theory
Parliamentary system
Presidential system
Project 2025
Signing statement
State of exception
References
 Chabot, Christine Kexel (2020-11-13). "Is the Federal Reserve Constitutional? An Originalist Argument for Independent Agencies". Notre Dame Law Review.
 Lessig, Lawrence & Sunstein, Cass (1994). "The President and the Administration" (PDF). Columbia Law Review. 94 (1): 1–123. doi:10.2307/1123119. JSTOR 1123119.
 Calabresi, Steven & Rhodes, Kevin (1992). "The Structural Constitution: Unitary Executive, Plural Judiciary". Harvard Law Review. 105 (6): 1165. doi:10.2307/1341727. JSTOR 1341727.
 Dean, John (2007). Broken Government. Viking. p. 102. ISBN 9780670018208. unitary executive.
 Liptak, Adam (2006). "Few Glimmers of How Conservative Judge Alito Is". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
 Berry, Christopher & Gersen, Jacob (2008). "The Unbundled Executive". University of Chicago Law Review. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. Archived from the original on August 7, 2011. We certainly do not claim that the most sensible or even any plausible interpretation of the US Constitution establishes a plural unbundled executive; but perhaps it should
 Latham, Joshua (2000). "The Military Munitions Rule and Environmental Regulation of Munitions". Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review. 27. Boston, Massachisetts: Boston College: 467.
 Ketchum, Ralph, ed. (1986). The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates. Signet Classic. p. 67. Mr. [James] Wilson entered into a contrast of the principal points of the two plans [i.e. the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan] ... These were ... A single Executive Magistrate is at the head of the one—a plurality is held out in the other.
 "Records of the Federal Convention, Article 2, Section 1, Clause 1". The Founder's Constitution. 1787.
 Wilson, James (December 4, 1787). "Pennsylvania Ratifying Convention".
 Ellis, Richard (1999). Founding the American Presidency. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 39. ISBN 9780847694990.
 Madison, James (February 6, 1788). "Federalist no. 51".
 Hamilton, Alexander (June 29, 1793). "Pacificus Letters, No. 1".
 Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52 (1926).
 Calabresi, Steven & Lawson, Gary (2007). "The Unitary Executive, Jurisdiction Stripping, and the Hamdan Opinions: A Textualist Response to Justice Scalia" (PDF). Columbia Law Review. 107: 1002–1047. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009.
 Manheim, Karl; Ides, Allan (September 2006). "The Unitary Executive". Los Angeles Lawyer. SSRN 943046. Loyola-LA Legal Studies Paper No. 2006-39.
 Barron, David; Lederman, Martin (2008). "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb: Framing The Problem, Doctrine, And Original Understanding". Harvard Law Review. 121. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University: 689. Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. we think the text, as reinforced by historical practice, makes a strong case for at least some form of a 'unitary executive' within the armed forces, particularly as to traditional functions during armed conflicts.
 Barron, David; Lederman, Martin (2008). "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb: A Constitutional History". Harvard Law Review. 121. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University: 941. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. there are those who would argue that the 'unitary executive' must have effective control over all Article II functions, in which case the superintendence guaranteed by the Commander in Chief Clause would not appear to do any additional work with respect to superintendence.
 Goitein, Elizabeth (January–February 2019). "The Alarming Scope of the President's Emergency Powers". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on April 1, 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
 "A Guide to Emergency Powers and Their Use". Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law. Archived from the original on April 1, 2020. Retrieved January 7, 2019.
 Kelley, Christopher (April 7–10, 2005). Rethinking Presidential Power: The Unitary Executive and the George W. Bush Presidency (PDF). 63rd Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Chicago.
 Reagan, Ronald (September 29, 1987). "Statement on Signing the Federal Debt Limit and Deficit Reduction Bill".
 Johnsen, Dawn (April 2008). "What's a President To Do? Interpreting the Constitution in the Wake of Bush Administration Abuses" (PDF). Boston University Law Review. 88: 395. On 363 occasions, President Bush objected to provisions that he found might conflict with the president's constitutional authority 'to supervise the unitary executive branch.'
 Lazarus, Edward (January 5, 2006). "How Much Authority Does the President Possess When He Is Acting as 'Commander in Chief'? Evaluating President Bush's Claims Against a Key Supreme Court Executive Power Precedent". FindLaw. That signed statement shows, in microcosm, how the President sees the separation of powers: The President, in his view of the world, can interpret away constraints on his power, such as those in the McCain Amendment, or FISA before it. And the courts can hardly question his dubious 'interpretations' even if they gut the very statutes they construe: After all, there are 'constitutional limitations on the judicial power'—though not, apparently, on the power of the executive.
 Van Bergen, Jennifer (January 9, 2006). "The Unitary Executive: Is The Doctrine Behind the Bush Presidency Consistent with a Democratic State?". Findlaw. In his view, and the view of his Administration, that doctrine gives him license to overrule and bypass Congress or the courts, based on his own interpretations of the Constitution. ...
 "North Carolina State Government - The Executive Branch - Council of State". www.carolana.com. Retrieved 2021-04-30.
Further reading
Barilleaux, Ryan J. & Kelley, Christopher S., eds. (2010). The Unitary Executive and the Modern Presidency. Texas A&M University Press. Essays by presidential scholars on the origins, history, use, and future of the unitary executive theory, with particular attention to the presidency of George W. Bush.
Calabresi, Steven & Yoo, Christopher (2008). The Unitary Executive; Presidential Power from Washington to Bush. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300145380.
Genovese, Michael A. (2023). "Power Above Principle: How Conservatives Came to Embrace Presidential Power". Ohio Northern University Law Review. 47 (1). Article 3.
Kurland, Philip & Lerner, Ralph. The Founders Constitution, Article 2, Section 1, Clause 1.
Percival, Robert V. (2001). "Presidential Management of the Administrative State: The Not-So-Unitary Executive". Duke Law Journal. 51 (3): 963–1013. doi:10.2307/1373182. JSTOR 1373182.
Rudalevige, Andrew. The New Imperial Presidency.
Skowronek, Stephen; Dearborn, John A. & King, Desmond (2021). Phantoms of a Beleaguered Republic: The Deep State and the Unitary Executive. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-754308-5.
Yoo, Christopher & Calabresi, Steven (2003). "The Unitary Executive during the Second Half-Century". Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy. 26.
Yoo, Christopher; Calabresi, Steven & Nee, Laurence (2004). "The Unitary Executive During the Third Half-Century, 1889–1945". Notre Dame Law Review. 80. SSRN 559581.
Yoo, Christopher; Calabresi, Steven & Colangelo, Anthony (2005). "The Unitary Executive in the Modern Era, 1945–2004". Iowa Law Review. 90 (2): 601. SSRN 690822.
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